The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894-1924
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- Author：Benny Morris
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Summary
A Financial Times Book of the Year
A Foreign Affairs Book of the Year
A Spectator Book of the Year
"A landmark contribution to the study of these epochal events。"
--Times Literary Supplement
"Brilliantly researched and written。。。casts a careful eye upon the ghastly events that took place in the final decades of the Ottoman empire， when its rulers decided to annihilate their Christian subjects。。。Hitler and the Nazis gleaned lessons from this genocide that they then applied to their own efforts to extirpate Jews。"
--Jacob Heilbrun， The Spectator
Between 1894 and 1924， three waves of violence swept across Anatolia， targeting the region's Christian minorities。 By 1924， the Armenians， Assyrians， and Greeks， once nearly a quarter of the population， had been reduced to 2 percent。 Most historians have treated these waves as distinct， isolated events， and successive Turkish governments presented them as an unfortunate sequence of accidents。 The Thirty-Year Genocide is the first account to show that all three were actually part of a single， continuing， and intentional effort to wipe out Anatolia's Christian population。 Despite the dramatic swing from the Islamizing autocracy of the sultan to the secularizing republicanism of the post-World War I period， the nation's annihilationist policies were remarkably constant， with continual recourse to premeditated mass killing， homicidal deportation， forced conversion， and mass rape。 And one thing more was a constant: the rallying cry of jihad。 While not justified under the teachings of Islam， the killing of two million Christians was effected through the calculated exhortation of the Turks to create a pure Muslim nation。
"A subtle diagnosis of why， at particular moments over a span of three decades， Ottoman rulers and their successors unleashed torrents of suffering。"
--Bruce Clark， New York Times Book Review
A Foreign Affairs Book of the Year
A Spectator Book of the Year
"A landmark contribution to the study of these epochal events。"
--Times Literary Supplement
"Brilliantly researched and written。。。casts a careful eye upon the ghastly events that took place in the final decades of the Ottoman empire， when its rulers decided to annihilate their Christian subjects。。。Hitler and the Nazis gleaned lessons from this genocide that they then applied to their own efforts to extirpate Jews。"
--Jacob Heilbrun， The Spectator
Between 1894 and 1924， three waves of violence swept across Anatolia， targeting the region's Christian minorities。 By 1924， the Armenians， Assyrians， and Greeks， once nearly a quarter of the population， had been reduced to 2 percent。 Most historians have treated these waves as distinct， isolated events， and successive Turkish governments presented them as an unfortunate sequence of accidents。 The Thirty-Year Genocide is the first account to show that all three were actually part of a single， continuing， and intentional effort to wipe out Anatolia's Christian population。 Despite the dramatic swing from the Islamizing autocracy of the sultan to the secularizing republicanism of the post-World War I period， the nation's annihilationist policies were remarkably constant， with continual recourse to premeditated mass killing， homicidal deportation， forced conversion， and mass rape。 And one thing more was a constant: the rallying cry of jihad。 While not justified under the teachings of Islam， the killing of two million Christians was effected through the calculated exhortation of the Turks to create a pure Muslim nation。
"A subtle diagnosis of why， at particular moments over a span of three decades， Ottoman rulers and their successors unleashed torrents of suffering。"
--Bruce Clark， New York Times Book Review
Reviews
Thomas Rumeau
，
I really did not know much about the Armenian genocide besides the constant opposition by Turkey to acknowledge it and the few news stories stressing the name of governments recognizing it。 I thought this book would give me some insight and boy did it do it。 Sometimes I thought the narrative was a bit repetitive， the same atrocities were repeated over and over in different parts of the Ottoman Empire and the authors repeated the same story line but in a different location， which became a bit ted I really did not know much about the Armenian genocide besides the constant opposition by Turkey to acknowledge it and the few news stories stressing the name of governments recognizing it。 I thought this book would give me some insight and boy did it do it。 Sometimes I thought the narrative was a bit repetitive， the same atrocities were repeated over and over in different parts of the Ottoman Empire and the authors repeated the same story line but in a different location， which became a bit tedious。 Although if you wanted a thorough analysis about each area， it seems that they documented that well。 I learned many things from this book， that Armenians accounted for almost 20% of the Ottoman population and now there are probably less than 1% of Turkey; that Greeks were also a significant minority when now there might be less than 2000 people living in Istanbul; that they were population exchanges between Greece and Turkey; That people are willing to commit horrible acts when they consider their enemies as worthless; that the Turkish government destroyed or is hiding historical documents; etc。。。At the end of a book I usually want to dig deeper into the topic to satisfy my curiosity。 Now there are 2 things I want to learn more about， the expansion of the Ottoman Empire and the history of the Armenians。 There are probably large topics but sometimes it’s good to learn more about history beyond your borders to appreciate where you live。 。。。more
ömer
，
This book should be added our national high school syllabus。。。
Leon "The Kilted Scotsman" McNair
，
The Thirty-Year GenocideA good book to pair with this reading might be - The Young Turks' Crime Against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide And Ethnic Cleansing In The Ottoman Empire， Taner AkcamThis meticulously well-researched tome of a book， that took ten years of investigating and combining vast numbers of extant documentation to produce the historical narrative， had me constantly feel as though my stomach was being riddled with punches by a World-class heavyweight boxer; mixed emotions of expre The Thirty-Year GenocideA good book to pair with this reading might be - The Young Turks' Crime Against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide And Ethnic Cleansing In The Ottoman Empire， Taner AkcamThis meticulously well-researched tome of a book， that took ten years of investigating and combining vast numbers of extant documentation to produce the historical narrative， had me constantly feel as though my stomach was being riddled with punches by a World-class heavyweight boxer; mixed emotions of expressed anger， unfounded hope， and lamentation。 Both Revelation 6:9-11 and Revelation 21:4 entered my mind throughout reading it。 Such strong feelings emerged within only the first one-hundred pages。One will not be able to escape the certain evident similarities to the Nazi German regime of the Holocaust， and it may certainly be said that the atrocities that faced the Christians from 1894-1924 was "a grand Holocaust"， as Corinna Shattuck， a missionary whom experienced the massacre at Urfa， describes。One-sixth of the book itself is dedicated to its references: 115 pages of over 2，000 citations， emanating mostly from British， French， American， and Greek sources and diplomats， missionaries， and businessmen living or visiting Anatolia， although Austria-Hungarian， German， and Turkish sources are also used。"。。。after defeat by the Allies and appropriate regime changes，。。。 whereas the German people acknowledged collective guilt， expressed remorse， made financial reparation， tried to educate itself and future generations about what had happened， and has worked to abjure racism， successive Turkish governments and the Turkish people have never owned up to what happened or to their guilt。 They continue to play the game of denial and to blame the victims。" p。505 。。。more
Isaac Pena
，
i was going to write a mildly critical review mostly agreeing with the conclusions reached although somewhat skeptical about the nature and composition of the sources used in this book。 then i decided to read dune instead
Gabriel Perlin
，
Full of horrific stories and gruesome detail。 Ottoman Turks were not far from ISIS in their barbaric persecution of Christians during this time period。
Josh Ehrich
，
A detailed account of the decades long genocide committed against Christians in the Ottoman Empire。
Gary
，
A bit academic for a casual read， but a shocking eye opener about this tragedy。 The authors show how the murder of all Christians was the government and popular policy of the Ottomans and then the Turks。 Highly recommended。
Jimmit Shah
，
If you thought the horror of the Holocaust was the only large scale， deliberate， state-run persecution of minorities on religious grounds， think again。 What the Armenians faced was significantly more horrific as their very way of life has nearly been annihilated。 As the book aptly summarizes， the Nazi atrocities， as horrific they might have been， lasted for seven years。 Armenians faced systemic destruction of their identity and their very existence over a horrific 3 decade long campaign。 What is If you thought the horror of the Holocaust was the only large scale， deliberate， state-run persecution of minorities on religious grounds， think again。 What the Armenians faced was significantly more horrific as their very way of life has nearly been annihilated。 As the book aptly summarizes， the Nazi atrocities， as horrific they might have been， lasted for seven years。 Armenians faced systemic destruction of their identity and their very existence over a horrific 3 decade long campaign。 What is more galling is that the hatred against the Armenians seemed to have seeped into every level of the Turkish society， to the extent that ordinary Turks took to raping， pillaging and butchering their century old neighbors。 Nazis killed Jews in concentration camps in a near clinical fashion whereas Armenians （and later the Greeks） were forced to watch as their women were gang-raped and as their neighbors came to kill them with axes， swords and stonesI picked up this book because in 2019 because of a prominent anti-Semitic US Congresswoman's refusal to condemn the genocide。 After reading this book， I am forced to question the humanity of such a person and the horrible moral code that would allow such a person to sleep at night。 。。。more
Trish
，
Many people forget there were significant populations of Christians in the Middle East， long before Western missionaries ever set a foot there， and indeed， before Christianity arrived in the western world。 The three Abrahamic religions all originated in those regions and all regard Jerusalem as a very holy place， with， as is evident， enduring conflict。 This book documents the genocide of Armenians and other minority Christian ethnic groups in the Ottoman Empire/Turkey over 30 years， which Turkey Many people forget there were significant populations of Christians in the Middle East， long before Western missionaries ever set a foot there， and indeed， before Christianity arrived in the western world。 The three Abrahamic religions all originated in those regions and all regard Jerusalem as a very holy place， with， as is evident， enduring conflict。 This book documents the genocide of Armenians and other minority Christian ethnic groups in the Ottoman Empire/Turkey over 30 years， which Turkey still denies to this day。 The authors piece together evidence from many sources， which must have been hard work， given that official archives have been repeatedly redacted。 This genocide was horrendously brutal， medieval in its violence。 It did not have the terrible industrial， bureaucratic efficiency of the Shoah， but it is arguably more heartbreaking for its sickening cruelty- rape- generally of women and girls， but sometimes of men and boys， too - evisceration， torture and dismemberment of men， women and children。 The calumnies against the Armenians have some similarities with those which have （and are still） directed towards Jews。 Too successful， dubious loyalties， “racial” inferiority， dishonesty， but with the addition of adherence to the “wrong” faith。 The attrition of indigenous Christian communities in the Middle East continues to this day。 The western world may not be aware of these Christians belonging to denominations far older than Anglicanism， Methodism， and less familiar than Catholicism and Orthodoxy。 This is not an easy read！ But it is important。 。。。more
Peter
，
“。。。 successive Turkish governments and the Turkish people have never owned up to what happened or to their guilt”。 “They continue to play the game of denial and to blame the victims。”
Scott Martin
，
（Audiobook） This was a detailed， depressing work about a series of mass killing in the Ottoman Empire/Turkish nation that occurred over a 30 year period。 While most might have heard about the Turkish/Ottoman massacres of the Armenians in 1915-1916， this work looks at a series of other actions， and not just against Armenians。 Assyrians， Greeks and other Christians were all victims of the Ottoman/Turks during this time period。 In the midst of the various stories of murder and other horrific acts， （Audiobook） This was a detailed， depressing work about a series of mass killing in the Ottoman Empire/Turkish nation that occurred over a 30 year period。 While most might have heard about the Turkish/Ottoman massacres of the Armenians in 1915-1916， this work looks at a series of other actions， and not just against Armenians。 Assyrians， Greeks and other Christians were all victims of the Ottoman/Turks during this time period。 In the midst of the various stories of murder and other horrific acts， the authors attempt to offer an explanation for why these actions were happening。 As the Ottoman Empire was in its death throes， many of the Islamic majority， seeing the fall of their once powerful empire and their position of prominence， saw the Christian minorities as significant threats to their positions。 As a result， those in power in the Ottoman Empire/Turkey looked to eliminate the threat， which ultimately resulted in the various mass killings/deportations that were focused on the Christians。 These actions ebbed and flowed in the midst of the fall of the Ottoman Empire， WWI and the chaos of the post-World War I environment。 The actions were almost textbook for genocide， in the various efforts to eliminate the Christians from society， from extortion， deportation and mass murder。 The Ottomans/Turks made great efforts to cover their tracks， limiting coverage and trying to purge records of these actions。 Still， there was enough first-hand accounts to formulate a story of what happened in that 30 year period。 Overall， this work will inspire a great deal of thought （and will probably never be sold in Istanbul）。 It is a tough read， but important。 It is not simplely Islam vs。 Christianity， even if Christians are the primary target。 This is a series of various factors， and the end-game of genocide is something that was not initially planed for， or desired， but what happened。 With Turkey again trying to highlight its Islamic credentials， it is not out the realm of possibility that Turkey could go down this route。 Still， we need to learn from the past， so that it does not happen again。 Hopefully， if the work can educate folks about the dangers of genocide， it might fulfill its purpose。 Until then， we have to continue to learn。 This is a good start for future research。 Audiobook or hard/e-copy， worth the time to study and review。 。。。more
Mr Siegal
，
A Harrowing ReadI have always been interested in finding out what happened to the Christian population of the Ottoman Empire during its final years。 This was a book that has been long due， and I believe that it is a vital addition to the historical event which Benny Morris and Dror Zeʼevi have named the Thirty-Year Genocide。 I knew it would be a tough read， but after a while you get numb to the constant references of pillage， murder， genocide， rape， and so on。 The authors have gone into great pa A Harrowing ReadI have always been interested in finding out what happened to the Christian population of the Ottoman Empire during its final years。 This was a book that has been long due， and I believe that it is a vital addition to the historical event which Benny Morris and Dror Zeʼevi have named the Thirty-Year Genocide。 I knew it would be a tough read， but after a while you get numb to the constant references of pillage， murder， genocide， rape， and so on。 The authors have gone into great pains so as to provide an unbiased overview of what went on during that time， and I believe that they have succeeded， though I must stress that I am no historian。 I found the conclusion quite enlightening， and I appreciated the time they took in comparing the Thirty-Year Genocide with the Holocaust。 Overall， they highlight that though the Nazis killed far more Jews and other ‘lesser races’， the Turks where more savage in their methods。 In addition， I appreciated the discussion on the role that Islam played in the entire affair; indeed， the Muslim populace was usually encouraged to take arms under the rubric of a holy war so as to clear away the infidels。 The fact that the Kurds also played a big role， especially when it came to the Armenian Genocide， was something that I did not know; what they now claim as parts of Kurdistan was once populated by Armenians too， but they conveniently massacred them。 Finally， I also liked the fact that they tried to pinpoint whenever Armenians or Greeks committed atrocities， though even with such evidence， the fact that the Turks committed a genocidal campaign on their subjects remains the same。 A question that arose while reading this book is why is there not more discussion or acknowledgement of the Turkish atrocities？ I believe that discussion is barred chiefly by three factors （though there may be more or less）。 Firstly， the events are still quite numb for the countries and populations who experienced them。 Though the majority of people who survived those events have died， the notion of ‘out of sight out of mind’ still exists。 Secondly， geopolitics plays a big role; we must not anger Turkey and as a result， the majority of the West is quite quiet on the matter （even Israel）。 Thirdly， I believe that there is a peculiar sort of bias that Middle Eastern countries cannot have empires like western ones。 Though I believe that the Ottoman Empire was indeed not something to be particularly proud of， the subjugation of its populace remains the same; Christians were second-class citizens。 This certain bias then has the result of people simply not caring， something which is peculiar in the age of post-colonialism。 While the ills of imperialism are now justly part of mainstream conversation， we shy away from the Ottoman Empire; at the end of the day， it was just another imperialist state， so lets treat it as one。The sad conclusion to the story is that Turkey succeeded in her mission of cleansing Asia Minor of her Christians。 The Pontic Greeks had a presence in Asia Minor from 700BC to 1922， well before the Turks came along （≃1080） while the Greek presence in Ionia （area around modern day Izmir） has a similar timeline。 The Armenians are referenced in Herodotus， so that makes them present at the in Asia Minor and its borders at least since 440BC）， though thankfully they still exist beyond Asia Minor and have now their own country， albeit in a fraction of what used to be their historic lands。On a side note， what I have always found quite ironic is that Greece is called Yunanistan in Turkey， and Greeks are called Yunan。 Yunanistan translates to ‘country of the Ionians’， and Ionia is historical name for the area around current day Izmir （the Greeks still refer to it as Ionia）。 Hence， Greece for Turkey has its namesake from the very place they expelled thousands of inhabitants… In conclusion， what I hope that this book does is to create a discussion; this is the same hope that the authors hold。 Indeed， it would be nice if Turkey acknowledged that at the end of the day， she is to blame for what happened， and to own up to her history。 Such a positive step would， I think， benefit all parties tremendously， though sadly， I highly doubt that it will happen any time soon。 Overall， a highly recommended， yet harrowing read。 。。。more
Charles Haywood
，
This book， a massive study by two Israeli historians， aspires to answer why and how Turkey exterminated its Christian population in the thirty years between 1894 and 1924。 Usually this extermination， or part of it， is referred to as the Armenian Genocide， except by the Turks， who to this day deny their crimes， and so don’t refer to it at all。 That usual term is misleading， however。 As Benny Morris and Dror Ze’evi document exhaustively， the primary target was all Christians， and the primary goal This book， a massive study by two Israeli historians， aspires to answer why and how Turkey exterminated its Christian population in the thirty years between 1894 and 1924。 Usually this extermination， or part of it， is referred to as the Armenian Genocide， except by the Turks， who to this day deny their crimes， and so don’t refer to it at all。 That usual term is misleading， however。 As Benny Morris and Dror Ze’evi document exhaustively， the primary target was all Christians， and the primary goal religious cleansing of the Turkish nation。 Proving this is the object of "The Thirty-Year Genocide。"No serious historian denies the Genocide occurred。 Not even the Turks deny that they killed Christians， though they minimize the numbers and， more importantly， ascribe the killings to their justified reaction to perfidious Armenians and Greeks， rebellious and disloyal， supposedly working to further the interests of Russia， Greece or other enemies of Turkey。 Disproving this claim is the other major object of "The Thirty-Year Genocide。"The authors identify three distinct phases of the Genocide， each with somewhat different motivations and practices， but all with the same lethal core rationale: 1894–1896， 1915–1916， and 1919–1924。 According to them， theirs is the first major study of the first and third phases。 A central premise of this book is that although a different Turkish government was in charge during each phase （respectively， Sultan Abdülhamid II; the “Young Turks”; and Mustafa Kemal）， they were in complete agreement， for somewhat differing reasons， on the need to eliminate all of Turkey’s Christians。 As the authors summarize:At play were fears of foreign machinations and interference， Turkish nationalism， ethnic rivalries， economic envy， and a desire to maintain political and social dominance。 Perpetrators sought power， wealth， and sexual gratification。 A combination of these motivations was manifest in each period and location。 In the course of our research we have also concluded that these forces were joined by another overarching element: Islam。 As an ethos and an ideology， Islam played a cardinal role throughout the process， in each of its stages。The immediate objection by some will be， I suspect， that post-Ottoman Turkey was supposedly an aggressively secular state， so claiming Islam bound together the latter two phases of the Genocide must be historically inaccurate。 However， as the authors show， putative secularism of the top leadership did not change the view of nearly all Turks， from top to bottom， that Turkey was a Muslim state and that non-Muslims had to go。 Kemal may have wanted to reduce the power of the clerics; he was in total agreement with them that Christians were a dangerous alien presence in Turkey that needed to disappear， and nearly every Turk， whatever his religiosity， was happy to cooperate to make that happen。 Supposed secularism had no effect at all in diminishing the Genocide， or the cardinal role of Islam in it。The authors carefully describe their research。 Most of the relevant Turkish archives are sealed， and those that are not have been carefully purged of incriminating material over the past hundred years， though enough shows up to corroborate some specific events。 The bulk of evidence， and it is very bulky， is contemporaneous writings from Western observers throughout the dying Ottoman Empire， ranging from pro-Turkish diplomats （including the historian Arnold Toynbee） to anti-Turkish Christian missionaries。 The authors examine and cross-reference these sources， as well as news reports， summaries made immediately after World War I of Turkish documents that have since disappeared， and other sources such as memoirs。 From the beginning， the authors knew that the Turkish response to any scholarship about the Genocide （which can also be seen in reactions to this book） is always， and has been for a century， to simultaneously claim that it is all lies， and that anyway the victims deserved it， and， by the way， the Armenians and Greeks did the same things that the Turks didn’t do。 Still， in their usual careful manner， Morris and Ze’evi examine and discuss， and then dismiss， each of these contradictory objections as transparently false。It’s not really surprising that to this day the Turks conspire to deny what they did。 They were never conquered， and so have never been forced by others to face up to their sins。 During the Cold War， the United States， which usually performs the role of global moral enforcer， had good reason to not annoy the Turks， so the Genocide faded further into the background。 And even today， nobody， except perhaps the Russians， and naturally the Armenians and the Greeks， has much reason to talk about the Genocide。 As a result， most discussion of it is confined to academic works， and occasional mentions in the newspaper， usually when Turkey throws a fit upon the mention of their crime by some ambassador or global leader。As the nineteenth century wound down， the rise of nationalism combined with the accelerating decline of the Ottoman Empire to unsettle the Turks， who had generally lived more or less in peace with their subjugated Christians， so long as they hewed to the requirements of dhimmi status。 The Russo-Turkish war， ending in 1878， resulted in Turkish losses in the Balkans and， perhaps more importantly， a siege mentality combined with an inferiority complex for the Turkish ruling class。 Armenians and Greeks were very numerous in both rural and urban areas of Turkey; they were there long before the Turks arrived， of course， and many urban Greeks stayed after the Ottomans conquered Constantinople in 1453。During the second half of the nineteenth century， the Armenian intellectual elite began to foment some Armenian national sentiment—more， surprisingly， than the Greeks， who by this time had an actual nearby nation to look to for support。 As a result， a small， but active， Armenian independence movement operated in portions of the Empire。 However， the actual threat from Armenians to Turkish interests or lives was nil。 The Greeks lacked a similar independence movement—for reasons that partially escape me， but could be various， the Greeks even today tend to take a highly conciliatory attitude toward the Muslims。 This is true， for example， of the Ecumenical Patriarch of the Greek Orthodox Church， and was true of Greeks and their religious leadership during this time period as well。The first phase of the Genocide， under the Sultan Abdülhamid， from 1894 to 1896， was disorganized， just like the Empire of the time。 That did not make it less effective; it is easy to kill masses of people without tight central control， if you don’t care how it’s done and you can appeal to varying motives， from Islamic supremacy to the desire to steal to the desire to rape。 Most Christian villages were already under the thumb of local Muslim tribes， often Kurds， who had long preyed on them without the government interfering， and it was not a big step to simply encourage the Kurds to make an end of the sheep entirely， paying them to do so if necessary。 In larger towns， however， the local administration generally coordinated an assault on the Armenian population， upon orders from higher up。 Greeks were largely spared in this phase， aside from occasional impromptu massacres by over-zealous local administrators。Very soon the authors establish the pattern for this book; a village-by-village， town-by-town， area-by-area close examination of what happened to the victims of the Genocide。 The broad process is similar everywhere; the result almost always the same。 Any variations are in the details。 Torture and rape， along with simple killing， were both nearly universal and explicitly condoned by those administering the Genocide。 （The authors note that in all their research， which documents innumerable rapes and forcing of young girls and women into permanent sexual slavery， including establishment of public slave markets， not once did they ever come across any reference to any punishment of a Turk for any sexual crime。） Killing was sometimes done on the spot， but very many times victims were marched out of their home area， for “resettlement，” and shot， or hacked to death， along the way in isolated areas。 Armenian property was then confiscated and shared out among Muslim neighbors， or hired Kurdish or Circassian killers， or local Ottoman officials。 The Turks did not care that those killed were very economically productive and in many cases provided craft and professional services difficult to replace; such arguments carried no weight with the authorities。 Rinse and repeat， off and on， for thirty years。This first phase ended up with， the authors decide after carefully evaluating various alternative calculations， about 100，000 Christians （almost all Armenians） directly murdered， and at least that many more， and perhaps twice as many， dying of resulting causes， including exposure to the elements and disease。 That was small potatoes compared to the second phase， which overlapped World War I。 The authors go to great lengths to analyze possible motives for this second phase， during which the so-called Young Turks， formally called the Committee of Union and Progress， ruled。 The war was one factor， but another was the First Balkan War， ending in 1913， which the Ottomans lost and which resulted in perhaps 1。5 million Muslim refugees flooding the Empire， with stories of hardship and oppression， inflaming Muslim opinion。 Tensions rose steadily， and various incidents of mass removal of Armenians and Greeks occurred， in part to seize housing for Muslim refugees。 In Armenian areas， the forced conscription of young Armenian men for the Turkish army， thousands of whom were killed by the Turks as the war went badly for the Turks and they were perceived as possible traitors， inflamed Armenian opinion as well。But the second phase only formally kicked of in 1915， with coordinated mass deportations followed by killing essentially everyone， beginning in the mountain town of Zeytun。 I will spare you a summary; it is more of the same， for 250 pages， documenting a million or so dead。 As with most chronicles of mass killing， from Christopher Browning’s "Ordinary Men" to Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn’s "The Gulag Archipelago，" the reader becomes numb from what seems like an endless recitation of murder and torture （though sadism and torture was more prominent in the Genocide than under either the National Socialists or the Soviets）。 This is not the sort of book that a reader will enjoy， or a casual reader is likely to finish。 What makes it worse， perhaps， is that the reader knows that no justice was meted out to the Turks， and none will be， in this life， at least。 They got what they wanted and they paid no price。 Nonetheless， as with the Holocaust， studying the details is extremely valuable， because it fights against the human tendency to gloss over the past。 And studying the Genocide has another benefit—it reminds us that the Holocaust was not， as some like to think， a one-time aberration， but one of multiple such events， where modern technology and modern ideologies and technologies combined with ancient hatreds to produce something very new and very bad。 Rwanda and ISIS have shown us more recently that genocide is not on the way out， whatever UN bureaucrats tell us， and there is no reason， in fact， that such events could not happen here in America， given the right circumstances。Morris and Ze’evi examine mountains of evidence trying to evaluate the degree of central coordination， sifting documents， dates， and events。 Their conclusion is， in essence， that there was more central coordination in the second two phases than under the Sultan， but as in the Holocaust， less than complete central coordination as to the specific means。 Every so often a planned massacre would be called off， if a Western observer that the Turks wanted to keep in the dark arrived in the area。 Of course， the ability to call off imminent， already-organized massacres （which were often initiated with a single call from the muezzin’s minaret） suggests strong central control， as the authors point out。 （It is also interesting to note that any observer from the United States was treated with extra delicacy。 “In particular， the United States was viewed as an unknown， but powerful， quantity， having previously demonstrated its naval strength against Barbary Coast pirates in Ottoman territory。”）And the third phase， from 1918 through 1924， was yet more of the same， under Kemal and the Nationalists， not the CUP， but for these purposes， that’s a distinction without a difference。 Kemal was better than the CUP at playing off the Allies against each other， thereby enabling him to quickly bring to an end the brief postwar period where the British and French tried to protect Christians and even help some move back。 The Allies mostly ended up supervising mass exoduses from Turkey， of Christians from Thrace and other areas not directly part of the Genocide。 Woodrow Wilson’s desire to carve an Armenian homeland out of Turkey died stillborn， and Kemal was given a free hand to complete what his predecessors had begun。The Nationalists focused primarily on the Greeks， who were incidental to earlier killings and ethnic cleansing。 Part of that was a reaction to the Greek occupation of parts of Anatolia during the Greco-Turkish war of 1919 to 1922， but removal of the Greeks was necessary to complete the vision of Turkey for the Turks。 （The few Jews left also were strongly encouraged to leave， suffering various economic persecutions if they did not， resulting in only a tiny number of Jews remaining in Turkey today。） Deportations alternated with killings， so a somewhat higher percentage of those persecuted survived in this third phase。 Nonetheless， perhaps close to another million Christians died in these years （including the Assyrian Christians， who had largely escaped past persecutions）。 And that was the end， since there was nobody left to kill。One theme that jumps out at the reader is how many times the first thing the Turks did to Christians was confiscate any and all weapons。 Variations on this must show up at least fifty times in the book。 Sometimes this was demanded on pain of instant death; other times it was sold to victims as the path to ensuring peace， by “decreasing tensions。” The result was always the same—all the communities who gave up their weapons were massacred， whatever promises were made， with metronomic regularity， with the job made smooth by the earlier removal of weapons。 I wasn’t surprised; such an approach is universal among tyrants and killers， as Stephen Halbrook has documented for the Third Reich。 It’s not clear that refusal was an option—in some cases， the Turks merely brought up artillery and shelled uncompliant villages。 But in some cases， armed Christians were able to make the cost too high for the Turks。 Assyrian Christians made a stand at Diyarbekir in 1915， as did Armenians in Musa Dagh， near the Turkish-Syrian border—by which is today the only Armenian village in Turkey。 Still， such examples were very much the exception， and it is hard to say if coordinated defensive violence would have ended better for the Armenians。 On the other hand， it couldn’t have ended worse。 Regardless， such historical examples are why resisting the calls of proto-tyrants of the Left for further gun control in the United States are critical。 As we approach our own days of flame， any agreement to disarm is likely to have fatal consequences， and must be resisted with vigor。Another theme is coerced conversions to Islam， which were extremely common。 Usually adult men were still killed after conversion; perhaps that is why few adult men did convert。 For children and for young women， though， the Turks sometimes preferred conversion; the children could be raised as Muslims， and the women handed over to Muslim men as second or third wives， or used as sex slaves for local notables。 （Such sexual slavery is approved under certain brands of Islam; it occurs in the modern world on a massive scale in areas controlled by adherents to those brands， including Nigeria and under ISIS， and was strongly approved of by all levels of Turkish authority。） Widespread coercion to convert， obviously， supports the authors’ thesis of the centrality of Islam to the Genocide。Naturally， the “Islam is a religion of peace” people were displeased by this book， which not only assigns blame to Islam but specifically calls out “the ideology of Muslim supremacy” which is at the very core of Islam。 Every so often the authors attempt to split hairs and suggest that they are not arguing that Islam is the problem。 They try to distinguish Islam and “political Islam，” which is like separating the vodka out of a Screwdriver cocktail， but it’s nice of them to make the effort。 They also go out of their way to name and document individual Muslims who helped victims。 Such a superficial sugar-coating isn’t a new approach; Morris and Ze’evi quote the British Ambassador to the Sublime Porte， in 1896， similarly assuring the Sultan， “The religion of Mohammed [is] highly respected in England and that no one attributed the crimes that had been committed to its teachings。” Then they say， “This was hogwash。” Everyone in Britain， from highest to lowest， most definitely attributed the crimes to Islam， pointing to the Sultan’s deliberate whipping up of religious hatreds in a desperate attempt to keep his rule from fracture， and British diplomats， even aside from the killings， reported an enormous wave of anti-Christian animosity。 Such sugar-coating is no more convincing today。Something else this book taught me was the dubious history of the Kurds。 In the United States， the Kurds are often viewed positively today， since they have fought with us against ISIS， and they present themselves as scrappy warriors espousing a moderate brand of Islam。 What the Kurds want is their own nation， to be carved largely out of Turkey， but also out of Iraq and Syria， and they seem to have a good propaganda team。 Still， we should not let soldierly sentiment and propaganda blind us。 So-called Kurdistan mostly consists of where Armenians once dominated， and a great many of the Armenians killed were slaughtered by the grandfathers or great-grandfathers of today’s Kurdish allies。 The Kurds are not our friends， even if they are sometimes temporary allies， any more than Saladin， a Kurd as well， was a friend of the Crusaders。 Mutual respect does not mean shared goals。But it’s not like the Armenians are going back to their ancestral homelands。 Perhaps one conclusion to be taken from this book is a harsh one。 Namely， that through evil the Turks succeeded， and there is no way to reverse what they did。 Sometimes there just is no solution， or no solution that is accessible through conceivable human action。 I am certainly in favor of turning Istanbul back into Constantinople， and the Hagia Sophia back into a church， but short of mass conversion of the Turks， neither goal could be accomplished without imposing even more suffering than the Turks imposed on Christians。 There are， after all， only 2，000 Greeks left in Constantinople。 We have， in fact， recently exacerbated the problem of Christianity’s destruction in its ancient heartland， by dynamiting order in the Middle East over the past fifteen years， resulting in further extermination of Christians （thanks， George W。 Bush！）。 We are responsible， but we cannot effectively now protect Christians in the Middle East from the consequences of what we have done （not that we try to do so）， much less reverse what happened a hundred years ago。 I’d be all for， say， letting the Russians carve an explicitly Christian homeland out of parts of Turkey， but let’s not pretend that could be done without a truly massive degree of violence。[Review completes as first comment。] 。。。more
Paulo Adalberto Reimann
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Great book revolting storyThe Armenian massacre is likely one of the least discussed or mentioned among genocide history。 Is recent。 Revolting。 Covered by official denial makes even more revolting。 Turks should stand up and apologize for every Armenian they find。 The turk government pay all damages。 But as narrow minded， dead in culture government（s） ain't happening。 The best book about the subject。 Tough reading though。 Great book revolting storyThe Armenian massacre is likely one of the least discussed or mentioned among genocide history。 Is recent。 Revolting。 Covered by official denial makes even more revolting。 Turks should stand up and apologize for every Armenian they find。 The turk government pay all damages。 But as narrow minded， dead in culture government（s） ain't happening。 The best book about the subject。 Tough reading though。 。。。more
Johnathan
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A very thorough examination of available documents and testimonies from German， British， American， French， Kurdish， Armenian and Turkish eyewitnesses to the events that happened in Ottoman Turkey from 1894-1924。 During that time between 1。5 to 2。5 million Armenian， Greek and Assyrian Christians were forcefully deported and/or systematically massacred。 （The vast majority being ethnic Armenian Christians 1。5M+）。 Every atrocity that happened in the hollocaust happened there， except for the gas Cham A very thorough examination of available documents and testimonies from German， British， American， French， Kurdish， Armenian and Turkish eyewitnesses to the events that happened in Ottoman Turkey from 1894-1924。 During that time between 1。5 to 2。5 million Armenian， Greek and Assyrian Christians were forcefully deported and/or systematically massacred。 （The vast majority being ethnic Armenian Christians 1。5M+）。 Every atrocity that happened in the hollocaust happened there， except for the gas Chambers。 Concentration camps， rape， brutal murder， starvation and more。 Men women and children。 In the most gorey and disgusting manners。 Morris and Ze'evi seem to genuinely try to be fair in ascribing blame for all of the details and events of the time， dispelling myths and exaggerations on both sides of the debate。 However， the overwhelming evidence stands against the three Islamic regimes over as many decades。 While the hollocaust has been admitted and reparations have been attempted， the 30 year genocide is denied， ignored and politically covered up。 The victims have never been honored and the crimes of the past have never been admitted。 When we don't learn from （or even about） the atrocities of the past， they are left to be repeated。 Turkey has been allowed to cover up and even attempt to reverse the details for far too long。 Even Hitler acknowledged what happened in Turkey when saying "After all， who remembers the Armenians？" as he attempted to justify his actions。 So here we stand， almost a century since these massacres ended， and there has been no action。 While the current Turkish government is not guilty of the crime， they are guilty of still covering it up and attempting to silence others。 Morris and Ze'evi are so detailed that it is， at times， difficult to even process the depth of these events。 Not for lack of writing ability， but for lack of the ability to process such horror。 This is the most thorough examination of history on this topic that I've seen。 Excellent book。 。。。more
Talha Alt
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